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.ht-spec-label,.entry-content[class] .idx,.entry-content[class] .k{font-weight: 700 !important}.entry-content[class] .aobo-note,.entry-content[class] .note{font-family: var(--ds-font-body) !important;color: var(--ds-muted) !important}.entry-content[class] .chip{font-family: var(--ds-font-head) !important;font-size: 13px !important;font-weight: 700 !important}.entry-content[class] .kicker,.entry-content[class] .eyebrow,.entry-content[class] .aobo-eyebrow{display: inline-flex !important;align-items: center;gap: 7px;margin: 0 0 14px !important;padding: 6px 14px !important;border: 1px solid var(--ds-border) !important;border-radius: 999px !important;background: #ffffff !important;color: var(--ds-blue) !important;font-family: var(--ds-font-head) !important;font-size: 13px !important;font-weight: 700 !important;letter-spacing: 0 !important;text-transform: none !important}@media (max-width: 760px){.entry-content[class] h1{font-size: clamp(22px,6.4vw,min(34px,var(--h1-max,34px))) !important}.entry-content[class] h2{font-size: 25px !important}.entry-content[class] h3{font-size: 20px !important}.entry-content[class] h4{font-size: 17px !important}.entry-content[class] p,.entry-content[class] li{font-size: 16px !important}.entry-content[class] table th,.entry-content[class] table td{font-size: 14px !important;padding: 11px 12px !important}.entry-content[class] .aobo-hero{padding: 30px 22px}.entry-content[class] .aobo-final-cta{padding: 26px 22px}.entry-content[class] .aobo-final-cta .aobo-btn{width: 100%}}\n<\/style>\n<section class=\"aobo-ht-ref ts-props\">\n<div class=\"aobo-wrap\">\n\n<div class=\"ts-hero\">\n<div class=\"ts-hero-top\">\n<div class=\"ts-kicker\"><span><\/span>Stainless Tool Steel | Corrosion | Heat Treatment<\/div>\n<h1 style=\"--h1-max:40px\">Sensitization and Intergranular Corrosion in Stainless Tool Steel<\/h1>\n<p>A stainless tool steel that failed along its grain boundaries usually passed every check on the drawing. The grade is right, the hardness is right, and the surface was clean. What went wrong is a heat treatment step that walked the steel through one temperature range, or held it there too long, and left the metal beside every grain boundary short of the chromium that makes the steel stainless in the first place. This page covers when that happens, what it costs in corrosion rate, and how the result is tested and accepted.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"ts-tool-area\">\n\n<h2 class=\"ts-h2\">Why a stainless steel can corrode along its grain boundaries<\/h2>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">Chromium is what makes a steel stainless. Above about 1035 C (1900 F) the chromium carbides in an austenitic stainless steel are completely dissolved, so the chromium sits in solid solution and is available to build the passive film that protects the surface. Cool the steel slowly from that temperature, or reheat it into 425 to 815 C (800 to 1500 F), and the carbides precipitate at the grain boundaries instead. Each carbide carries more chromium than the surrounding matrix does, so precipitation drains the chromium out of a narrow zone on both sides of every boundary. Chromium diffuses slowly at these temperatures, so the depleted zone stays where it is. The steel is then sensitized, which means the boundaries corrode preferentially while the grains themselves stay bright.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">The source puts a number on how much that matters. In boiling 50% sulfuric acid with ferric sulfate added, iron-chromium alloys show a corrosion rate that falls sharply as the chromium content rises, and the test is most sensitive between 12 and 18% Cr. That is exactly the chromium band the martensitic stainless tool steels occupy, so a loss of chromium at the boundary is not a small effect in the environment that test represents. With the leaner chromium levels the passive film is more soluble in the acid, so more metal has to dissolve to repair the film and the measured rate climbs.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ts-table-wrap\" style=\"width:fit-content;max-width:100%\">\n<table class=\"ts-table\" style=\"min-width:1080px;\">\n<thead><tr><th>Where the steel sits in the cycle<\/th><th>What the carbides do<\/th><th>What it leaves in the steel<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Above about 1035 C (1900 F)<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">Chromium carbides are completely dissolved in the austenite<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">A clean solution treated structure with no chromium held at the grain boundaries<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Slow cooling from above 1035 C, or any reheating into 425 to 815 C (800 to 1500 F)<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">Chromium carbides precipitate at the grain boundaries, and each carbide contains more chromium than the surrounding matrix<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">The matrix beside every boundary is left depleted in chromium and the steel is sensitized<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">About 675 C (1250 F)<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">Peak rate of chromium carbide precipitation<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">The worst point of the window, and it is a normal stress relief temperature for carbon and low alloy steels<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Held below about 425 C (800 F)<\/td><td>The carbides do not precipitate at all<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">A rapid cool past this level leaves the steel immune to intergranular corrosion<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">The heat affected zone of a weld<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">Part of the zone stays inside the precipitation range long enough to form carbides while the weld itself cools fast<\/td><td class=\"ts-safe\">Weld decay, which is the classic field case of sensitization<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"ts-tcap\"><em>The sensitizing window as the source defines it. The steel is safe above the solution temperature and safe below the precipitation range, and the risk sits entirely in the cool down and in any later heat treatment that walks back into 425 to 815 C. Compiled from the intergranular corrosion section of the article.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">Rapid cooling past about 425 C (800 F) is the answer in the furnace, because the carbides never get the time to form. The trap is the step after hardening. Stress relief of carbon and low alloy steels is commonly done at about 675 C, which is also the temperature of peak carbide precipitation in stainless steel, so a stainless part sharing a load with carbon steel parts in a stress relief cycle can be sensitized by a treatment that was never aimed at it. Welding does the same thing on a smaller scale, because the heat affected zone passes through the precipitation range while the weld pool itself cools fast enough to avoid it.<\/p>\n\n<h2 class=\"ts-h2\">What tempering does to a stainless tool steel<\/h2>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">The martensitic stainless grades used for cutlery, molds and wear parts harden because quenching produces martensite, and martensite has to be tempered to restore ductility. That tempering step is itself a reheating into a temperature range where carbides form, so the corrosion resistance of a hardened and tempered martensitic stainless steel depends on how it was tempered and not only on its analysis. The source records the related measurement for a ferritic stainless steel, a martensite start temperature of 176 C (349 F) for a 17% Cr steel with the transformation 90% complete at 93 C (199 F), a start temperature of minus 160 C for a 21% Cr steel, and no martensite at all in quenched 25% Cr alloys. Untempered martensite removes toughness and ductility, and it also corrodes faster than the structure around it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">The reason it corrodes faster is worth carrying into a discussion with a customer. When iron-chromium alloys split into ferrite and austenite at high temperature, the two phases do not hold the same amount of chromium, and the austenite is the leaner of the two. Martensite that forms from that austenite inherits the leaner composition, so it is lower in chromium than the ferrite beside it and it dissolves first in the boiling sulfuric acid test. The source reports exactly that behavior for the martensite in type 430, and it notes that the test is insensitive to the same difference at higher chromium levels, which is why no preferential attack showed up in the austenite formed in type 446. In plain terms, the phase that is lowest in chromium is the phase that corrodes first, whatever the grade name says on the certificate.<\/p>\n\n<h2 class=\"ts-h2\">The secondary phases that take the chromium out<\/h2>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">Carbides are only the best known of the phases that form when stainless steel is held at temperature. The source lists the full set with the range in which each one appears, and they overlap in a way that matters for a heat treat schedule. Sigma phase and chi phase form over roughly 550 to 1050 C (1020 to 1920 F) and 600 to 900 C (1110 to 1650 F) respectively, and both reduce corrosion resistance and cost ductility and toughness. Alpha prime is a chromium-rich phase that appears at a much lower temperature, 350 to 550 C (660 to 1020 F), and although it has little effect on corrosion resistance its formation is the reason for the loss of toughness known as 475 C embrittlement.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ts-table-wrap\" style=\"width:fit-content;max-width:100%\">\n<table class=\"ts-table\" style=\"min-width:980px;\">\n<thead><tr><th>Phase<\/th><th>Symbol<\/th><th>Type<\/th><th>Formula<\/th><th>Range, C<\/th><th>Range, F<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Chromium carbide<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>M7C3<\/td><td>(Cr,Fe,Mo)7C3<\/td><td>950 to 1050<\/td><td>1740 to 1920<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Chromium carbide<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>M23C6<\/td><td>(Cr,Fe,Mo)23C6<\/td><td>600 to 950<\/td><td>1110 to 1740<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Chromium carbide<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>M6C<\/td><td>(Cr,Fe,MoNb)6C<\/td><td>700 to 950<\/td><td>1290 to 1740<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Chromium nitride<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>M2N<\/td><td>(Cr,Fe)2N<\/td><td>650 to 950<\/td><td>1200 to 1740<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Fe-Mo nitride<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>M5N<\/td><td>Fe7Mo13N4<\/td><td>550 to 600<\/td><td>1020 to 1110<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Nb-Cr nitride<\/td><td>Z<\/td><td>MN<\/td><td>(NbCr)N<\/td><td>700 to 1000<\/td><td>1290 to 1830<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Niobium carbonitride<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>MC<\/td><td>Nb(CN)<\/td><td>700 to melting point<\/td><td>1290 to melting point<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Sigma<\/td><td>\u03c3<\/td><td>AB<\/td><td>(Fe,Cr,Mo,Ni)<\/td><td>550 to 1050<\/td><td>1020 to 1920<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Chi<\/td><td>\u03c7<\/td><td>A48B10<\/td><td>Fe36Cr12Mo10 over (FeNi)36Cr18(TiMo)4<\/td><td>600 to 900<\/td><td>1110 to 1650<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Alpha prime<\/td><td>\u03b1\u2032<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>CrFe with 61 to 83% Cr<\/td><td>350 to 550<\/td><td>660 to 1020<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Laves<\/td><td>\u03b7<\/td><td>A2B<\/td><td>(FeCr)2(Mo,Nb,Ti,Si)<\/td><td>550 to 900<\/td><td>1020 to 1650<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">R<\/td><td>R<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>(Fe,Mo,Cr,Ni)<\/td><td>550 to 650<\/td><td>1020 to 1200<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Tau<\/td><td>\u03c4<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><td>550 to 650<\/td><td>1020 to 1200<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"ts-tcap\"><em>Secondary phases in stainless steels with the temperature range in which each one forms. Type code in the source reads A for austenitic, D for duplex and F for ferritic. Source, Table 8 of the article.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">Two of the entries in that table deserve a note for tool steel work. The M7C3 and M23C6 chromium carbides bracket the tempering range between them, with M23C6 forming from about 600 to 950 C (1110 to 1740 F) and M7C3 above that, so any tempering schedule in that band is a carbide precipitation schedule by definition. And the source is explicit that nitrogen is what allows the highly alloyed stainless grades to be used in the as-welded condition at all, because nitrogen delays the precipitation of the intermetallic phases. Where a grade is stabilised with titanium or niobium the chromium carbide problem is largely taken out of play, because those elements form more stable carbides than chromium does above about 815 C (1500 F). One qualification comes with that, and the source states it directly. Titanium carbide can itself be attacked by nitric acid, so a titanium stabilised steel is not automatically the right answer in a highly oxidizing medium.<\/p>\n\n<h2 class=\"ts-h2\">What sigma phase costs in corrosion rate<\/h2>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">One set of measurements in the source makes the point better than any description. A single Fe-47Cr alloy was heat treated so that it was either entirely ferrite or entirely sigma phase, and the two structures were then tested side by side in the same solutions. The table below gives both rates and the ratio the source itself reports. Under reducing conditions the sigma phase corrodes between two and five times faster than the ferrite. Under oxidizing conditions the ratio goes to 10, 24 and 42 depending on the acid, and in the ferric chloride pitting test the ferrite does not corrode at all while the sigma phase loses 2.5 g\/dm2\/d.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ts-table-wrap\" style=\"width:fit-content;max-width:100%\">\n<table class=\"ts-table\" style=\"min-width:860px;\">\n<thead><tr><th>Solution<\/th><th>Ferrite, g\/dm2\/d<\/th><th>Sigma phase, g\/dm2\/d<\/th><th>Ratio<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td colspan=\"4\" class=\"ts-group\">Reducing conditions<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">10% HCl, boiling<\/td><td>1461<\/td><td>7543<\/td><td>5.2<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">10% H2SO4, boiling<\/td><td>2939<\/td><td>7422<\/td><td>2.5<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">50% H2SO4, boiling<\/td><td>5088<\/td><td>5280<\/td><td>1.04<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"4\" class=\"ts-group\">Oxidizing conditions<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">50% H2SO4 + Fe2(SO4)3, boiling<\/td><td>0.0195<\/td><td>0.196<\/td><td>10<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">50% H2SO4 + CuSO4, boiling<\/td><td>0.0170<\/td><td>0.415<\/td><td>24<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">65% HNO3, boiling<\/td><td>0.0205<\/td><td>0.861<\/td><td>42<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">HNO3 + HF at 65 C (150 F)<\/td><td>0.00<\/td><td>0.06<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td colspan=\"4\" class=\"ts-group\">Pitting conditions<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">10% FeCl3.6H2O at room temperature<\/td><td>0.00<\/td><td>2.5<\/td><td>&#8230;<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"ts-tcap\"><em>The corrosion rate of sigma phase against the corrosion rate of ferrite in the same Fe-47Cr alloy, in eight solutions and one pitting test. The ratio column is the source&#8217;s own value. Source, Table 4 of the article.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">The source draws a conclusion from this that is worth repeating, because it is not the intuitive one. Sigma phase does not need a chromium depletion mechanism to explain why it reduces corrosion resistance. It is simply a structure that corrodes faster than ferrite on its own account. That changes the practical question. A second phase network at the grain boundaries is a problem because it is a continuous path of less resistant material, and an isolated colony of the same phase is much less of a problem, so the shape of what formed can matter as much as how much of it formed. Cold work accelerates the precipitation of sigma phase, and nickel additions up to about 2% accelerate it further while higher nickel levels slow it down again.<\/p>\n\n<h2 class=\"ts-h2\">How sensitization is tested and accepted<\/h2>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">The point of these tests is not to reproduce a service environment. It is to answer a narrower question, whether the material supplied is in the metallurgical condition that was ordered, which is why they are used as acceptance tests rather than as design data. For austenitic stainless steels the standard is ASTM A 262, which contains six practices. Practice A is an electrolytic oxalic acid etch, a screening test that takes minutes and is judged by examining the etched microstructure for chromium carbide sensitization. Practice B runs 120 hours in boiling ferric sulfate plus sulfuric acid and reports a weight loss rate. Practice C runs 240 hours in boiling 65% nitric acid and picks up sigma phase as well as carbides. Practice E runs 24 hours in boiling 6% copper sulfate plus 10% sulfuric acid with metallic copper added, and is judged by bending the specimen and looking for fissures. Practice F is a 120 hour boiling test in copper sulfate plus 50% sulfuric acid with copper present, aimed at molybdenum bearing grades.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">Ferritic stainless steels are handled by ASTM A 763, which follows the same shape as A 262 with an oxalic etch and three acid immersion tests, and wrought nickel-rich chromium alloys by ASTM G 28. The one structural difference in A 763 is that the acid exposures are judged under the microscope, and the presence or absence of grain dropping becomes the acceptance criterion. The table below collects the acceptance criteria the source tabulates, including the sensitizing treatment that is applied first, because a limit without the treatment that produced it is not a usable specification.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ts-table-wrap\" style=\"width:fit-content;max-width:100%\">\n<table class=\"ts-table\" style=\"min-width:1040px;\">\n<thead><tr><th>Alloy<\/th><th>Sensitizing treatment<\/th><th>Test<\/th><th>Exposure, h<\/th><th>Maximum allowable rate, mm\/month (mils\/month)<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Type 304<\/td><td>None<\/td><td>Ferric sulfate, A 262-B<\/td><td>120<\/td><td>0.1 (4)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Type 304L<\/td><td>1 h at 675 C (1250 F)<\/td><td>Nitric acid, A 262-C<\/td><td>240<\/td><td>0.05 (2)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Type 309S<\/td><td>None<\/td><td>Nitric acid, A 262-C<\/td><td>240<\/td><td>0.025 (1)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Type 316<\/td><td>None<\/td><td>Ferric sulfate, A 262-B<\/td><td>120<\/td><td>0.1 (4)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Type 316L<\/td><td>1 h at 675 C (1250 F)<\/td><td>Ferric sulfate, A 262-B<\/td><td>120<\/td><td>0.1 (4)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Type 317L<\/td><td>1 h at 675 C (1250 F)<\/td><td>Ferric sulfate, A 262-B<\/td><td>120<\/td><td>0.1 (4)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Type 321<\/td><td>1 h at 675 C (1250 F)<\/td><td>Nitric acid, A 262-C<\/td><td>240<\/td><td>0.05 (2)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Type 347<\/td><td>1 h at 675 C (1250 F)<\/td><td>Nitric acid, A 262-C<\/td><td>240<\/td><td>0.05 (2)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">20Cb-3<\/td><td>1 h at 675 C (1250 F)<\/td><td>Ferric sulfate, G 28-A<\/td><td>120<\/td><td>0.05 (2)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">904L<\/td><td>None<\/td><td>Ferric sulfate, G 28-A<\/td><td>120<\/td><td>0.05 (2)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">Incoloy 825<\/td><td>1 h at 675 C (1250 F)<\/td><td>Nitric acid, A 262-C<\/td><td>240<\/td><td>0.075 (3)<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td class=\"ts-type\">29-4-2<\/td><td>None<\/td><td>Ferric sulfate, A 763-X<\/td><td>120<\/td><td>No significant grain dropping<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"ts-tcap\"><em>Evaluation tests and acceptance criteria for wrought alloys as the source tabulates them, with the qualifying sensitizing treatment and the pass limit for each one. Source, Table 1 of the article Evaluating Intergranular Corrosion.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">For a check on a single production part rather than a certification sample, the source describes the electrochemical reactivation test of ASTM G 108. A polished specimen is polarised from its passive condition into the active range in sulfuric acid with potassium thiocyanate, and the charge that passes during reactivation is related to the chromium carbide precipitation at the grain boundaries. The bench marks the source gives are a charge per unit grain boundary area below 0.1 C\/cm2 for an unsensitized microstructure and above 0.4 C\/cm2 for a heavily sensitized one. That test is fast enough to run on a part pulled from a heat, which the 120 and 240 hour acid immersions are not.<\/p>\n\n<h2 class=\"ts-h2\">What this means on a tool steel order<\/h2>\n<p class=\"ts-p\">Three things follow from this for anyone buying or heat treating a stainless tool steel. The chemistry and the heat treatment together decide the corrosion resistance, so a grade should never be selected on analysis alone where the part will be tempered or stress relieved. The secondary phases in the table above overlap the tempering ranges of the martensitic grades, so the tempering temperature has to be chosen against both the hardness and the corrosion requirement. And where sensitization matters, the acceptance test belongs in the purchase specification, together with the qualifying sensitizing treatment, because the limit on its own does not describe anything. The same metallurgical picture from the heat treat side is on <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/martensitic-stainless-steel-microstructure\/\">the microstructure of martensitic stainless steel<\/a>, the cycles themselves are on <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/440c-stainless-steel-heat-treatment\/\">440C stainless steel heat treatment<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/420-stainless-steel-heat-treatment\/\">420 stainless steel heat treatment<\/a>, and the corrosion behaviour of the grades Aobo supplies is charted on <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/stainless-steel-corrosion-resistance-chart\/\">the stainless steel corrosion resistance chart<\/a>. The service failures that follow from a wrong heat treatment are on <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/tool-steel-size-change-in-heat-treatment\/\">size change in heat treatment<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/quench-cracking-tool-steel\/\">quench cracking in tool steel<\/a>, the cleanliness side of the same boundary problem is on <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/steel-inclusion-and-grain-size-measurement\/\">inclusion and grain size measurement<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/tool-steel-quality-verification\/\">tool steel quality verification<\/a>, and the grades themselves are described on <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/4cr13-stainless-steel\/\">4Cr13 stainless steel<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/plastic-mold-steels\/\">plastic mold steels<\/a>. Where a chloride environment is also present the boundary attack can turn into cracking, which is the subject of <a href=\"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/steel-embrittlement-types\/\">the types of steel embrittlement<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n<div class=\"ts-disclaimer\">\n<h3>Before you act on a sensitization diagnosis<\/h3>\n<p>A reference page, it is not an Aobo Steel specification, and the rates and criteria above are the values published for the specific alloys, treatments and solutions named. An accelerated acid test ranks materials and confirms a delivered condition, it does not predict service life in a plant. The temperature ranges are given for the stainless steel families the source was describing, and the exact boundary of the sensitizing window shifts with carbon content, nitrogen content and the stabilising additions in the grade in front of you. Treat the acceptance limits as a starting point for a purchase specification that names its own qualifying treatment, and confirm the structure on the actual part before concluding that the heat treatment was at fault.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n<p class=\"ts-source\">Source: ASM Handbook, Volume 13A, Corrosion: Fundamentals, Testing, and Protection, ASM International, 2003.<\/p>\n\n<\/div><\/div><\/section>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Stainless Tool Steel | Corrosion | Heat Treatment Sensitization and Intergranular Corrosion in Stainless Tool Steel A stainless tool steel that failed along its grain boundaries usually passed every check on the drawing. The grade is right, the hardness is right, and the surface was clean. What went wrong is a heat treatment step that [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_uag_custom_page_level_css":"","site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"disabled","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-21191","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v28.6 (Yoast SEO v28.6) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-premium-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Sensitization and Intergranular Corrosion in Stainless Tool Steel<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Chromium carbide precipitation between 425 and 815 C leaves stainless tool steel sensitized at its grain boundaries. 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The grade is right, the hardness is right, and the surface was clean. What went wrong is a heat treatment step that&hellip;","rttpg_featured_image_url":null,"rttpg_author":{"display_name":"Evan","author_link":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/blog\/author\/admin\/"},"rttpg_comment":0,"rttpg_category":null,"rttpg_excerpt":"Stainless Tool Steel | Corrosion | Heat Treatment Sensitization and Intergranular Corrosion in Stainless Tool Steel A stainless tool steel that failed along its grain boundaries usually passed every check on the drawing. The grade is right, the hardness is right, and the surface was clean. What went wrong is a heat treatment step that&hellip;","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/21191","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=21191"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/21191\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":21192,"href":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/21191\/revisions\/21192"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/aobosteel.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=21191"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}